Long Days Journey Into the Night free essay sample

Act I, Part One The drama begins in August, 1912, at the summer place of the Tyrone household. The scene for all four Acts of the Apostless is the household s life room, which is next to the kitchen and dining room. There is besides a stairway merely away phase, which leads to the high-level sleeping rooms. It is 8:30 am, and the household has merely finished breakfast in the dining room. While Jamie and Edmund, Tyrone enter and embracing, and Mary remarks on being pleased with her recent weight addition even though she is eating less nutrient. Tyrone and Mary make conversation, which leads to a brief statement about Tyrone s inclination to pass money on existent estate puting. They are interrupted by the sound of Edmund, who is holding a coughing tantrum in the following room. Although Mary comments that he simply has a bad cold, Tyrone s organic structure linguistic communication indicates that he may cognize more about Edmund s illness than Mary. We will write a custom essay sample on Long Days Journey Into the Night or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Nevertheless, Tyrone tells Mary that she must take attention of herself and focal point on acquiring better instead than acquiring disquieted about Edmund. Mary instantly becomes defensive, stating, There s nil to be upset about. What makes you think I m disquieted? Tyrone drops the topic and Tells Mary that he is glad to hold her beloved old ego back once more. Edmund and Jamie are heard express joying in the following room, and Tyrone instantly grows bitter, presuming they are doing gags about him. Edmund and Jamie enter, and we see that, even though he is merely 23 old ages old, Edmund is obviously in bad wellness and nervous. Upon come ining, Jamie begins to gaze at his female parent, believing that she is looking much better. The conversation turns vindictive, nevertheless, when the boies begin to do merriment of Tyrone s loud snore, a topic about which he is sensitive, driving him to anger. Edmund tells him to quiet down, taking to an statement between the two. Tyrone so turns on Jamie, assailing him for his deficiency of aspiration and indolence. To quiet things down, Edmund tells a amusing narrative about a renter named Shaughnessy on the Tyrone household land in Ireland, where the household s beginnings lie. Tyrone is non amused by the anecdote, nevertheless, because he could be the topic of a case related to ownership of the land . He attacks Edmund once more, naming his remarks socialist. Edmund gets disturbances and issues in a tantrum of coughing. Jamie points out that Edmund is truly ill, a remark which Tyrone responds to with a shut up expression, as though seeking to forestall Mary from happening out something. Mary tells them that, despite what any physician may state, she believes that Edmund has nil more than a bad cold. Mary has a deep misgiving for physicians. Tyrone and Jamie begin to gaze at her once more, doing her self-aware. Mary reflects on her faded beauty, acknowledging that she is in the phases of diminution. As Mary issues, Tyrone chastises Jamie for proposing that Edmund truly may be ill in forepart of Mary, who is non supposed to worry during her recovery from her dependence to morphine. Jamie and Tyrone both suspect that Edmund has ingestion ( better known today as TB ) , and Jamie thinks it unwise to let Mary to maintain gulling herself. Jamie and Tyrone argue over Edmund s physician, Doc Hardy, who charges really small for his services. Jamie accuses Tyrone of acquiring the cheapest physician, without respect to quality, merely because he is a penny-pincher. Tyrone retorts that Jamie ever thinks the worst of everyone, and that Jamie does non understand the value of a dollar because he has ever been able to take comfy life for granted. Tyrone, by contrast, had to work his ain manner up from the streets. Jamie lone squanders tonss of money on prostitutes and spirits in town. Jamie argues back that Tyrone squanders money on existent estate guess, although Tyrone points out that most of his retentions are mortgaged. Tyrone accuses Jamie of indolence and knock his failure to win at anything. Jamie was expelled from several colleges in his younger old ages, and he neer shows any gratitude towards his male parent ; Tyrone thinks that he is a bad influence on Edmund. Jamie counters that he has ever tried to learn Edmund to take a life different from that which Jamie leads. Act I, Part Two Tyrone and Jamie continue their treatment about Edmund, who works for a local newspaper. Tyrone and Jamie have heard that some editors dislike Edmund, but they both acknowledge that he has a strong originative urge that drives much of his programs. Tyrone and Jamie agree besides that they are glad to hold Mary back. They resolve to assist her in any manner possible, and they decide to maintain the truth about Edmund s illness from her, although they realize that they will non be able to make so if Edmund has to be committed to a sanatarium, a topographic point where TB patients are treated. Tyrone and Jamie discuss Mary s wellness, and Tyrone seems to be gulling himself into believing that Mary is healthier than she truly is. Jamie references that he heard her walking around the spare bedroom the dark before, which may be a mark that she is taking morphia once more. Tyrone says that it was merely his snore that induced her to go forth ; he accuses Jamie one time once more of ever seeking to happen the worst in any given state of affairs. Between the lines, we begin to larn that Mary foremost became addicted to morphine 23 old ages before, merely after giving birth to Edmund. The birth was peculiarly painful for her, and Tyrone hired a really inexpensive physician to assist ease her hurting. The economical but unqualified physician prescribed morphia to Mary, acknowledging that it would work out her immediate hurting but disregarding possible future side effects, such as dependence. Therefore we see that Tyrone s stinginess ( or prudence, as he would name it ) , has come up in the yesteryear, and it will be referred to many more times during the class of the drama. Mary enters merely as Tyrone and Jamie are about to get down a new statement. Not wishing to upset her, they instantly cease and make up ones mind to travel outside to pare the hedges. Mary asks what they were reasoning approximately, and Jamie tells her that they were discoursing Edmund s physician, Doc Hardy. Mary says she knows that they are lying to her. The two stare at her once more briefly before go outing, with Jamie stating her non to worry. Edmund so enters in the thick of a coughing tantrum and Tells Mary that he feels ill. Mary Begins to niggle over him, although Edmund tells her to worry about herself and non him. Mary tells Edmund that she hates the house in which they live because, I ve neer felt it was my place. She puts up with it merely because she normally goes along with whatever Tyrone wants. She criticizes Edmund and Jamie for dishonoring themselves with loose adult females, so that at present no respectable misss will be seen with them. Mary announces her b elief that Jamie and Edmund are ever cruelly leery, and she thinks that they spy on her. She asks Edmund to halt surmising me, although she acknowledges that Edmund can non swear her because she has broken many promises in the yesteryear. She thinks that the yesteryear is difficult to bury because it is full of broken promises. The act ends with Edmund s issue. Mary sits entirely, jerking nervously. Act II, Scene i The drape rises once more on the life room, where Edmund sits reading. It is 12:45 autopsy on the same August twenty-four hours. Cathleen, the amah, enters with whisky and H2O for pre-lunch imbibing. Edmund asks Cathleen to name Tyrone and Jamie for tiffin. Cathleen is gabby and flirty, and Tells Edmund that he is fine-looking. Jamie shortly enters and pours himself a drink, adding H2O to the bottle afterwards so that Tyrone will non cognize they had a drink before he came in. Tyrone is still outside, speaking to one of the neighbours and seting on an act with the purpose of demoing off. Jamie tells Edmund that Edmund may hold a illness more terrible than a simple instance of malaria. He so chastises Edmund for go forthing Mary entirely all forenoon. He tells him that Mary s promises mean nil any longer. Jamie reveals that he and Tyrone knew of Mary s morphine dependence every bit much as 10 old ages before they told Edmund. Edmund begins a coughing tantrum as Mary enters, and she tells him non to cough. When Jamie makes a supercilious remark about his male parent, Mary tells him to esteem Tyrone more. She tells him to halt ever seeking out the failings in others. She expresses her fatalistic position of life, that most events are someway predetermined, that worlds have small control over their ain lives. She so complains that Tyrone neer hires any good retainers ; she is displeased with Cathleen, and she blames her sadness on Tyrone s refusal to engage a top-rate amah. At this point, Cathleen enters and tells them that Tyrone is still outside speaking. Edmund exits to bring him, and while he is gone, Jamie stares at Mary with a concerned expression. Mary asks why he is looking at her, and he tells her that she knows why. Although he will non state it straight, Jamie knows that Mary is back on morphia ; he can state by her glassy eyes. Edmund reenters and expletives Jamie when Mary, playing ignorant, tel ls him that Jamie has been insinuating awful things about her. Mary prevents an statement by stating Edmund to fault no 1. She once more expresses her fatalist position: [ Jamie ] ca nt assist what the yesteryear has made him. Any more than your male parent can. Or you. Or I. Jamie shrugs off all accusals, and Edmund looks suspiciously at Mary. Tyrone enters, and he argues briefly with his two boies about the whisky. They all have a big drink. Suddenly, Mary has an outburst about Tyrone s failure to understand what a place is. Mary has a distinguishable vision of a place, one that Tyrone has neer been able to supply for her. She tells him that he should hold remained a unmarried man, but so she drops the topic so that they can get down tiffin. However, she foremost criticizes Tyrone for allowing Edmund drink, stating that it will kill him. Suddenly experiencing guilty, she retracts her remarks. Jamie and Edmund issue to the dining room. Tyrone sits gazing at Mary, so says that he has been a God-damned sap to believe in you. She becomes defensive and begins to deny Tyrone s mute accusals, but he now knows that she is back on morphia. She complains once more of his imbibing before the scene ends. Act II, Scene ii The scene begins half an hr after the old scene. The household is returning from tiffin in the dining room. Tyrone appears angry and distant, while Edmund appears brokenhearted. Mary and Tyrone argue briefly about the nature of the place, although Mary seems slightly distant while she speaks because she is on morphia. The phone rings, and Tyrone answers it. He talks briefly with the company and agrees on a meeting at four oclock. He returns and tells the household that the company was Doc Hardy, who wanted to see Edmund that afternoon. Edmund comments that it does nt sound like good newss. Mary instantly discredits everything Doc Hardy has to state because she thinks he is a inexpensive quack whom Tyrone hired merely because he is cheap. After a brief statement, she exits upstairs. After she is gone, Jamie comments that she has gone to acquire more morphia. Edmund and Tyrone explode at him, stating him non to believe such bad ideas about people. Jamie counters that Edmund and Tyrone need to confront the truth ; they are pull the leg ofing themselves. Edmund tells Jamie that he is excessively pessimistic. Tyrone argues that both male childs have forgotten Catholicism, the lone belief that is non deceitful. Jamie and Edmund both grow mad and get down to reason with Tyrone. Tyrone admits that he does non pattern Catholicism purely, but he claims that he prays each forenoon and each eventide. Edmund is a truster in Nietzsche, who wrote that God is dead in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. He ends the statement, nevertheless, by deciding to talk with Mary about the drugs, and he exits upstairs. After Edmund leaves, Tyrone tells Jamie that Doc Hardy say that Edmund has ingestion, no possible uncertainty. However, if Edmund goes to a sanatarium instantly, he will be cured in six to 12 months. Jamie demands that Tyrone send Edmund someplace good, non someplace inexpensive. Jamie says that Tyrone thinks ingestion is needfully fatal, and therefore it is non deserving passing money on seeking to bring around Edmund since he is guaranteed to decease anyhow. Jamie right argues that ingestion can be cured if treated decently. He decides to travel with Tyrone and Edmund to the physician that afternoon so exits. Mary reenters as Jamie leaves, and she tells Tyrone that Jamie would be a good boy if he had been raised in a existent place as Mary envisions it. She tells Tyrone non to give Jamie any money because he will utilize it merely to but spirits. Tyrone bitterly implies that Mary and her drug usage is adequate to do any adult male want to imbibe. Mary dodges his accusal with denials, but she asks Tyrone non to go forth her alone that afternoon because she gets lonely. Tyrone responds that Mary is the 1 who foliages, mentioning to her mental distance when she takes drugs. Tyrone suggests that Mary take a drive in the new auto he bought her, which to Tyrone s bitterness does non frequently acquire used ( he sees it as another waste of money ) . Mary tells him that he should non hold bought her a second-hand auto. In any instance, Mary argues that she has no 1 to see in the auto , since she has non had any friends since she got married. She alludes briefly to a dirt affecting Tyrone and a kept woman at the beginning of their matrimony, and this event caused many of her friends to abandon her. Tyrone Tells Mary non to delve up the yesteryear. Mary changes the topic and tells Tyrone that she needs to travel to the apothecarys shop. Diging into the past, Mary tells Tyrone the narrative of acquiring addicted to morphine when Edmund was born. She implicitly blames Tyrone for her dependence because he would merely pay for a inexpensive physician who knew of no better manner to bring around her childbearing hurting. Tyrone interrupts and tells her to bury the yesteryear, but Mary answers, Why? How can I? The yesteryear is the present, is nt it? It s the hereafter excessively. We all try to lie out of that but life wo nt allow us. Mary blames herself for interrupting her vow neer to hold another babe after Eugene, her 2nd babe who died at two old ages old from rubeolas he caught from Jamie after Jamie went into the babe s room. Tyrone tells Mary to allow the dead babe remainder in peace, but Mary merely blames herself more for non remaining with Eugene ( her female parent was babysitting when Jamie gave Eugene rubeolas ) , and alternatively traveling on the route to maintain Tyrone company as he traveled the state with his dramas. Tyrone had later insisted that Mary have another babe to replace Eugene, and so Edmund was born. But Mary claimed that from the first twenty-four hours she could state that Edmund was weak and delicate, as though God intended to penalize her for what happened to Eugene. Edmund reenters after Mary s address, and he asks Tyrone for money, which Tyrone grudgingly produces. Edmund is truly grateful, but so he gets the thought that Tyrone may repent giving him money because Tyrone thinks that Edmund will decease and the money will be wasted. Tyrone is greatly hurt by this accusal, and Edmund all of a sudden feels really guilty for what he said. He and his male parent do damagess briefly before Mary furiously tells Edmund non to be so morbid and pessimistic. She begins to shout, and Tyrone exits to acquire ready to travel to the physician with Edmund. Mary once more criticizes Doc Hardy and Tells Edmund non to see him. Edmund replies that Mary needs to discontinue the morphia, which puts Mary on the defensive, denying that she still uses and so doing alibis for herself. She admits that she lies to herself all the clip, and she says that she can no longer name my psyche my ain. She hopes for salvation one twenty-four hours through the Virgin. Jamie and T yrone call Edmund, and he exits. Mary is left entirely, sword lilies that they are gone but experiencing so lonely. Act III The scene opens every bit usual on the life room at 6:30 autopsy, merely before dinner clip. Mary and Cathleen are entirely in the room ; Cathleen, at Mary s invitation, has been imbibing. Although they discuss the fog, it is clear that Cathleen is at that place merely to give Mary a opportunity to speak to person. They discuss briefly Tyrone s compulsion with money, and so Mary refuses to acknowledge to Edmund s ingestion. Mary delves into her past memories of her life and household. As a pious Catholic schoolgirl, she says that she neer liked the theatre ; she did non experience at place with the theatre crowd. Mary so brings up the topic of morphia, which we learn Cathleen gets for her from the local apothecarys shop. Mary is going obsessed with her custodies, which used to be long and beautiful but have since deteriorated. She mentions that she used to hold two dreams: to go a nun and to go a celebrated professional piano player. These dreams evaporated, nevertheless, when she met Tyrone and fell in love. She met Tyrone after seeing him in a drama. He was friends with her male parent, who introduced the two. And she maintains that Tyrone is a good adult male ; in 36 old ages of matrimony, he has had non one adulterous dirt. Cathleen so exits to see about dinner, and Mary easy becomes acrimonious as she recalls more memories. She thinks of her felicity before run intoing Tyrone. She thinks that she can non pray any longer because the Virgin will non listen to a pot monster. She decides to travel upstairs to acquire more drugs, but before she can make so, Edmund and Tyrone return. They instantly recognize upon seeing her that she has taken a big dosage of morphia. Mary tells them that she is surprised they returned, since it is more cheerful uptown. The work forces are clearly intoxicated, and in fact Jamie is still uptown seeing prostitutes and imbibing. Mary says that Jamie is a hopeless failure and warns that he will drag down Edmund with him out of green-eyed monster. Mary negotiations more about the bad memories from the yesteryear, and Tyrone plaints that he even bothered to come place to his pot nut of a married woman. Tyrone decides to pay no attending to her. Mary meanwhile waxes about Jamie, who she thinks was really smart until he started imbibing. Mary blames Jamie s imbibing on Tyrone, naming the Irish stupid rummies, a remark which Tyrone ignores. Mary s tone all of a sudden changes as she reminisces about run intoing Tyrone. Tyrone so begins to shout as he thinks back on the memories, and he tells his married woman that he loves her. Mary responds, I love you dear, in malice of everything. But she regrets get marrieding him because he drinks so much. Mary says she will non bury, but she will seek to forgive. She mentions that she was spoiled awfully by her male parent, and that botching made her a bad married woman. Tyrone takes a drink, but seeing the bottle has been watered down by his boies seeking to gull him into believing that they have nt been imbibing, he goes to acquire a new one. Mary once more calls him ungenerous, but she excuses him to Edmund, stating of how he was abandoned by his male parent and forced to work at age 10. Edmund so tells Mary that he has TB, and Mary instantly begins discrediting Doc Hardy. She will non believe it, and she does non desire Edmund to travel to a sanatarium. She thinks that Edmund is merely blowing things out of the H2O in an attempt to acquire more attending. Edmund reminds Mary that her ain male parent died of TB, so remarks that it is hard holding a pot monster for a female parent. He exits, laping Mary entirely. She says aloud that she needs more morphia, and she admits that she in secret hopes to o.d. and decease, but she can non deliberately do so because the Virgin could neer forgive self-destruction. Tyrone reenters with more whisky, observing that Jamie could non pick the lock to his spirits cabinet. Mary all of a sudden bursts out that Edmund will decease, but Tyrone assures her that he will be cured in six months. Mary thinks that Edmund hated her because she is a pot monster. Tyrone comforts her, and Mary one time once more blames herself for giving birth. Cathleen announces dinner. Mary says she is non hungry and goes to bed. Tyrone knows that she is truly traveling for more drugs. Act IV, Part One The clip is midnight, and as the act begins a fogsignal is heard in the distance. Tyrone sits entirely in the life room, imbibing and playing solitaire. He is intoxicated, and shortly Edmund enters, besides rummy. They argue about maintaining the visible radiations on and the cost of the electricity. Tyrone acts stubborn, and Edmund accuses him of believing whatever he wants, including that Shakespeare and Wellington were Irish Catholics. Tyrone grows angry and threatens to crush Edmund, so retracts. He gives up and bends on all the visible radiations. They note that Jamie is still out at the brothel. Edmund has merely returned from a long walk in the cold dark air even though making so was a bad thought for his wellness. He states, To hell with sense! We re all loony. Edmund tells Tyrone that he loves being in the fog because it lets him populate in another universe. He pessimistically parodies Shakespeare, stating, We are such material as manure is made of, so Lashkar-e-Taiba s imbibe up and bury it. That s more my thought. He quotes so from the Gallic writer Baudelaire, stating be ever drunken. He so quotes from Baudelaire about the orgy in the metropolis in mention to Jamie. Tyrone criticizes all of Edmund s literary gustatory sensations ; he thinks Edmund should go forth literature for God. Tyrone thinks that merely Shakespeare avoids being an immorality, morbid pervert. They hear Mary upstairs traveling about, and they discuss her male parent, who died of TB. Edmund notes that they merely seem to discourse unhappy subjects together. They begin to play cards, and Tyrone tells Jamie that even though Mary dreamed of being a nun and a piano player, she did non hold the self-control for the former or the accomplishment for the latter ; Mary deludes herself. They hear her come downstairs but pretend non to detect. Edmund so blames Tyrone for Mary s morphia dependence because Tyrone hired a inexpensive quack. Edmund so says he hates Tyrone and blames him for Mary s continued dependence because Tyrone neer gave her a place. Tyrone defends himself, but so Edmund says that he thinks that Tyrone believes he will decease from ingestion. Edmund tells Tyrone that he, Tyrone, spends money merely on land, non on his boies. Edmund states that he will decease before he will travel to a inexpensive sanatarium. Tyrone coppices off his remarks, stating that Edmund is intoxicated. But Tyrone promises to direct Edmund anyplace he wants to do him better, within ground. Tyrone tells Edmund that he is prudent with money because he has ever had to work for everything he has. Edmund and Jamie, by contrast, have been able to take everything in life for granted. Tyrone thinks that neither of his boies knows the value of money. Edmund, diging into his deeper emotions, reminds Tyrone that he, Edmund, one time tried to perpetrate self-destruction. Tyrone says that Edmund was simply intoxicated at the clip, but Edmund insists he was cognizant of his actions. Tyrone so begins to shout lightly, stating of his destitute childhood and his awful male parent. Tyrone and Edmund, doing damagess, agree together on a sanatarium for Edmund, a topographic point that is more expensive but well better. Tyrone so tells Edmund of his great theatrical error that prevented him from going widely celebrated: he sold out t o one peculiar function, and was everlastingly more typecast, doing it hard for him to spread out his skylines and happen new work. Tyrone says that he merely of all time truly wanted to be an creative person, but his hopes were dashed when he sold out to brief commercial success. Edmund begins express joying at life. It s so blasted loony, thought of his male parent as an creative person. Edmund so tells some of his memories, all of which are related to the sea. He reflects on minutes when he felt dissolved into or lost in the ocean. He thinks that there is truth and significance in being lost at sea, and he thinks he should hold been born a sea gull or a fish. Act IV, Part Two Hearing Jamie nearing the house, Tyrone steps into the following room. Jamie enters, rummy and slurring his address. He drinks more, but he will non allow Edmund imbibe at first, for wellness grounds. Jamie complains about Tyrone briefly, so learns of his understanding with Edmund. Jamie says that he spent the eventide at the brothel, where he paid for a fat prostitute whom no 1 else was willing to take. Edmund attacks Jamie with a clout when Jamie begins praising himself and call on the carpeting others. Jamie thanks him all of a sudden for unbending him out ; he has been messed up by jobs related to Mary s dependence. He and Edmund both begin to shout as they think about their female parent. Jamie is besides worried about Edmund, who may decease from ingestion. Jamie says that he loves Edmund, and that in a sense he made him what he is at present. But Jamie besides admits that he has been a bad influence, and he says that he did it on intent. Jamie admits that he has ever been covetous of Edmund, and he wanted Edmund to besides neglect. He set a bad illustration deliberately and tried to convey Edmund down. He so warns Edmund, stating, I ll make my damnedest to do you neglect, but so he admits, You re all I ve got left. Jamie so passes out. Tyrone so reenters, holding heard all that Jamie said. Tyrone says that he has been publishing the exact same warning to Edmund for many old ages. Tyrone calls Jamie a waste. Jamie wakes up all of a sudden and argues with Tyrone. Jamie and Tyrone both pass out briefly until they are awoken by the sound of Mary playing the piano in the following room. The sound stops, and Mary appears. She is really pale and really clearly on a significant dosage of morphia. Jamie begins to shout, and Tyrone angrily cries that he will throw Jamie out of his house. Mary is hallucinating, believing that she is back in her childhood. She thinks that she is in a convent. In her custodies, she is keeping her nuptials gown, which she fished out of the Attic earlier. She does non hear anyone, and she moves like a somnambulist. Edmund all of a sudden tells Mary that he has ingestion, but she tells him non to touch her because she wants to be a nun. The three work forces all pour themselves more alcohol, but before they can imbibe, Mary begins to talk. She tells them of her talk with Mother Elizabeth, who told her that she should see life out of the convent before taking to go a nun. Mary says that she followed that advice, went place to her parents, met and fell in love with James Tyrone, and was so happy for a clip. The male childs sit motionless and Tyrone stirs in his chair as the drama ends.

Types and Examples of DNA Mutations

Types and Examples of DNA Mutations DNA mutations happen when there are changes in the nucleotide sequence that makes up the strand of DNA. This can be caused by random mistakes in DNA replication or even an environmental influence like UV rays or chemicals. The changes at the nucleotide level then influence the transcription and translation from gene to protein expression. Changing even just one nitrogen base in a sequence can change the amino acid that is expressed by that DNA codon which can lead to a completely different protein being expressed. These mutations range from being non-harmful all the way up to causing death. Point Mutations ALFRED PASIEKA/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Getty Images A point mutation is usually the least harmful of the types of DNA mutations. It is the change of a single nitrogen base in a DNA sequence. Depending on the placement of that nitrogen base in the codon, it can cause no effect to the protein. Codons are a sequence of three nitrogen bases in a row that is read by messenger RNA during transcription and then that messenger RNA codon is translated into an amino acid that goes on to make a protein that will be expressed by the organism. Since there are only 20 amino acids and a total of 64 possible combinations of codons, some amino acids are coded for by more than one codon. Often, if the third nitrogen base in the codon is changed, it will not change the amino acid. This is called the wobble effect. If the point mutation occurs in the third nitrogen base in a codon, then it causes no effect on the amino acid or subsequent protein and the mutation does not change the organism. At most, a point mutation will cause a single amino acid in a protein to change. While this usually is not a deadly mutation, it can cause issues with that proteins folding pattern and the tertiary and quaternary structures of the protein. One example of a point mutation is sickle cell anemia. A point mutation caused a single nitrogen base in a codon for one amino acid in the protein called glutamic acid to instead code for the amino acid valine. This single small change causes a normally round red blood cell to instead be sickle-shaped. Frame Shift Mutations Frameshift mutations are much more serious and deadly than point mutations. Even though only one nitrogen base is affected just like in point mutations, this time the single base is either completely deleted or an extra one is inserted into the middle of a DNA sequence. This change in sequence causes the reading frame to shift, hence the name frameshift mutation. A reading frame shift changes the three letter long codon sequence for messenger RNA to transcribe and translate. Not only is that amino acid changed, all subsequent amino acids are changed. This significantly changes the protein and can cause severe problems and even possibly death. Insertions One type of frameshift mutation is called an insertion. Just as the name implies, an insertion occurs when a single nitrogen base is accidentally added in the middle of the sequence. This throws off the reading frame of the DNA and the wrong amino acid is translated. It also pushes the entire sequence down by one letter, changing all codons that come after the insertion and therefore completely altering the protein. Even though inserting a nitrogen base makes the overall sequence longer, that does not necessarily mean the amino acid chain length will increase. In fact, it could seriously shorten the amino acid chain. If the insertion causes a shift in the codons to create a stop signal, a protein may never be made. Otherwise, an incorrect protein will be made. If the protein that has been changed was essential for life, then most likely the organism will die. Deletions The other type of frameshift mutation is called a deletion. This happens when a nitrogen base is taken out of the sequence. Again, this causes the entire reading frame to change. It changes the codon and will also affect all amino acids that are coded for after the deletion. Nonsense and stop codons may also appear in the wrong places, much like an insertion. DNA Mutation Analogy Much like reading text, the DNA sequence is read by messenger RNA to produce a story or an amino acid chain that will be used to make a protein. Since each codon is 3 letters long, lets see what happens when a mutation occurs in a sentence that uses only three letter words. THE RED CAT ATE THE RAT. If there was a point mutation, the sentence would change to: THC RED CAT ATE THE RAT. The e in the word the mutated into the letter c. While the first word in the sentence is no longer the same, the rest of the words still make sense and are what they are supposed to be. If an insertion were to mutate the above sentence, then it might read: THE CRE DCA TAT ETH ERA T. The insertion of the letter c after the word the completely changes the rest of the sentence. Not only is the second word no longer readable, neither are any words after it. The entire sentence has changed into nonsense. A deletion would do something similar to the sentence: THE EDC ATA TET HER AT. In the example above, the r that should have come after the word the has been deleted. Again, it changes the entire sentence. Even though in this example, some of the subsequent words are readable, the meaning of the sentence has completely changed. This shows that even if codons are changed into something that isnt nonsense, it still completely changes the protein into something that is no longer functional.

Earnings per share FASB project on convergence with the IFRS Essay

Earnings per share FASB project on convergence with the IFRS - Essay Example The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) avers to serve "the investing public through transparent information resulting from high-quality financial reporting standards" (FASB, Home Page)The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and the FASB acknowledge that the convergence of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and the U.S. Generally, Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) is the primary objective of both boards. The FASB has taken up several 'projects' to address issues where differences have been found in reporting standards and have successfully concluded many; some are under current scrutiny. One of the current issues is the reporting of 'Earnings per Share' or EPS as it is popularly known.Different tools are available for making financial analysis of stocks and range from the very simple and elegant to the very complex and difficult to understand. The financial performance of the company, and therefore, its future prospects and stock performance, i s better understood through the calculation of some important ratios that assist us in a detailed appraisal. The EPS method looks at the financial performance of the company; focusing on the earnings recorded per ordinary share in a particular accounting period. This number provides a clear picture of the actual profitability of the company and is used to calculate the Price to Earnings (PE) ratio which represents the ratio of the market price of the share compared with EPS. Since the share price changes almost continually this latter ratio also keeps changing and needs to be calculated on real time basis at the time of making investment related decisions. This is the most important ratio used by the market generally to assess the relative rating of a share and the company's prospects and, of course, is the easiest to understand. It identifies the number of years' earnings needed to cover the current market price of the share. This paper presents the results of a detailed study of this project and its immediate and long term implications for the accounting fraternity as well as the users of accounting statements, viz. the management, shareholders and other stakeholders of the company as well as auditors, potential suitors (for takeover bids) and public. The Standards IAS are a set of financial reporting policies that typically require increased disclosure and restrict management's choices of measurement methods relative to the accounting standards of the local GAAP standards (Ashbaugh & Pincus, 2001). With regard to the Earnings per Share the FASB issued a statement (Statement No. 128: Earnings per Share) and the IASB its statement IAS-33. Both boards have been working together to resolve the differences in order to bring convergence in the two statements and plan to make their final recommendations open for public comment in the first quarter of 2008. This draft will be open comment for 120 days and will then be adopted, with modifications, if required through public opinion. This draft will represent the third such 'exposure draft' on the subject, the earlier ones required many changes based on public comment and had to be revised. The earlier drafts were based on the comments on the statement 128 in 2003 and the first exposure draft in 2005. The description of EPS i.e. The basic earnings divided by the average number of ordinary shares outstanding during the period (IAS33-R.10) leads us to the immediate issues involved: a) How are the basic earnings to be calculated, and b) what is the number of shares the earnings must be divided by to arrive at the EPS. We examine how these are considered under the IFRS and GAAP to arrive at the differences between the current practices under the two regulations. Basic Earnings The concept is to arrive at the profit of the company that is attributable to the ordinary shareholders of the company and therefore the basic earnings must be calculated as net profit (or loss) less preference dividends

Summary and analysis of an article for micro- economics Essay

Summary and analysis of an article for micro- economics - Essay Example Many economists have predicted a rise in the GDP by spring which could help raise the unemployment rate. The article quotes the job loss trend witnessed in JPMorgan Chase in relation to the decline in the GDP. A 9 to 10% unemployment rate is being predicted to occur by mid-year which can in turn put a lot of stress to the banking sector. Such an economic down trend could result in wage cuts and prices of commodities. If the GDP reaches 3.5%, an 8.5% rate in unemployment will be witnessed by the end of 2009. However economists have stated that with an already higher unemployment rate the GDP may have understated the weakness of the economy. Thus even if a positive economic growth is seen in the second half of this year it might not be able to keep the unemployment rate from increasing in the next year. While recessions in the past have seen a rapid recovery in the aftermath the current situation is more unlikely to follow the same due to the higher healing time required by financial sectors this time around. There is a lot of dependence on consumer spending and stimulus programs to better the situation and a positive improvement in the unemployment rates can add to faster

Criteria of American Rebels John Reed, Joseph Freeman, and Louis Research Paper

Criteria of American Rebels John Reed, Joseph Freeman, and Louis Fischer Used in the History Evaluation - Research Paper Example The developing stories of World War I, the Mexican Revolution, and the Bolshevik Revolution show the various stages through which the world has evolved before accomplishing its status. Apparently, the universe has been through series of social, economic and political transformations for the longest time since the introduction of the industrial revolution followed by series of inventions and discoveries that have shaped the world to what it is today (John Reed’s Selected Writings 76-158). Many people recognize the contributions of John Reed in the analysis of the Mexican Revolution as well as the happenings of World War I that have influenced international relationships between countries across the globe. Despite the raging debate over the contributions of World War and the infamous Mexican Revolution to the current status, it is important to recognize the views and opinions of the John Reed that have also illuminated understanding of many learners across the globe (John Reedâ €™s Selected Writings 76-158). In particular, Reed focused on the positive and negative aspects of the Mexican Revolution of 1911. He used unique criteria to create a clear and more comprehensible understanding of the Revolution, which has influenced the social, economic, and political dynamics of current Mexico as well as the neighborhood (Reed 63-78). The Americans (USA) did not understand the 1911 Mexico Revolution. However, the revolution found a soft landing in short stories, silent films, and American novels. The novels have particularly displayed a comprehensive analysis of the stages through which the country went through before attaining political, social and economic independence. Today, the United States and Mexico share fundamental similarities, which have immensely helped the process of shaping up an understanding of the relations between the two countries. Stereotypes about Mexico dominated American films during the 20thcentury (Reed 63-78). The first criteria that John Reed used were to examine and analyze whether or not the people of Mexico engaged in the fierce fight for the sake of it or because they wanted things they could not afford through the alternative option.  

Why are Risk Assessments Important?

Why are Risk Assessments Important? Demonstrate why risk assessment is an important conceptual  framework for health and social care practice A phrase I have heard often is ‘health and safety gone mad’ and this has been said by people in the care sector when referring to procedures and training they believe is unnecessary, just creating extra work, to perform extra checks and it has been expressed that some employees felt as if it was creating more procedures and forms to fill that if not done the employee could be blamed if something goes wrong and management could avoid responsibility. I believe that these feeling are caused by introducing training and implementing new tasks without an explanation to their importance and not providing the risk assessment to show the research and past incidents that have led to new procedures being enforced. On the 4th April 2015 I was working as a casual support worker in a S.E.N school and a teacher there told me that herself and the other teachers had to attend ladder training and were forbidden from using chairs or anything else to reach for objects on school premises, the school now had a ladder that they described to be safer and would lessen the risk of an accident. The teacher I spoke to said â€Å"its health and safety gone mad.† She thought it was wasted effort having to have to get the ladder and impractical that they were told that no staff should use chairs for that purpose. She did not know about the numerous risk assessments that had been completed involving falls in school settings from chairs and tables; the National Union of Teachers researched and discovered that ‘Between 2002 and 2010 there was one death and nearly two thousand injuries in the education sector as a result of falls from height’. The National Union of teachers examined regulations th at would support their results and the ‘Regulation 6(3) of the Work at Height Regulations states that employers must do all that is reasonably practicable to prevent anyone falling. They must avoid work at height being carried out wherever possible, and where it is unavoidable put in place measures (e.g. suitable work equipment and procedures) to minimise the risk of a fall, and the risk of injury should someone fall despite suitable measures being put in place’. So it is each employer’s obligation to provide training and equipment to ensure the safety of their employees when the probability of the risk happening becomes greater and new information is produced showing new procedures need to be implemented. Risk assessment is the valuation of the harm or disease that could be caused by an object or the environment and this harmful substance is labelled a hazard and the level of harm that hazard can cause will affect how the hazard is controlled. The hazard could present a low or high risk to individuals or the environment; the extent of harm the hazard could cause and the probability of that harm happening is how the risk is measured. The factors to consider when looking at a hazard are how it could cause harm, where does the hazard reside or kept, conditions surrounding the hazard, the frequency of exposure and how much exposure is safe (GreenFacts.org, 2014). A qualitative risk assessment ‘produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study (G, Guest, 2005)’. A qualitative risk assessment has been defined as a ‘written photograph’ (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, Allen, 1993) as cited in Participant Observation as a Data Collection Method (2005), it observes an individual’s contradictory behaviours, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and relationships of individuals. Qualitative methods are also effective in identifying intangible factors, such as social norms, socioeconomic status, gender roles, ethnicity, and religion, whose role in the research issue may not be readily apparent. (G, Guest, 2005). The techniques of a qualitative risk assessment is to observe the subjective influences of the individual, to interview the person or other individuals that are necessary to the assessment to gain background information, contributing factors that has lead up to current conditions and the r isk assessment, to strategies possible solutions and to try and have answers to any queries. Focus groups bring together a group of people to discuss and express their feelings on one topic. The focus group can assist in researching a sensitive subject, to gather preliminary data, aid in the development of surveys and interview guide, to clarify research findings from another method and to gain a large amount of information on the topic in a short time, access to topics that might be otherwise unobservable, can insure that data directly targets researchers topic and Provide access to comparisons that focus group participants make between their experiences (Cohen D, 2006). Qualitative risk assessments assist with quantitative risk assessments as the conclusion of the qualitative risk assessment can provide the information needed to create a numeric value for the probability of the hazard causing harm or disease to individuals or the environment. A quantitative risk assessment identifies the level of risk by using an equation that would show if the risk has a high or low chance of harm or disease by evaluating the hazard, the environment and individuals that could be exposed. The equation used is R=C x E x P means: R is the total score of the risk for example; 20 or less=negligible, 21-69=low, 70-199=medium, 200-399=high and 400or more=very high. C means consequence, severity or disease for example; fatality=100, very serious=75, serious=50, important=10 and minor=5. E is for how often an individual is exposed to the hazard for example; continuous=10, frequent=6, occasional=3, unusual=2, rare=1 and very rare=0.5. P=probability of the hazard causing harm or disease, how often a person could come into contact with the hazard and how capable is the person to deal with the hazard for example; would be expected=10, quite possible=6, unusual but possible=3, only remotely possible=1, conceivable but unlikely=0.5, practically impossible=0.2 and virtually impossible (Tabithasonia, 2014). Risk assessments are based on factual research but there are occasions when personal fears, media and inconclusive debates could lead people to believe that a hazard could cause more harm than studies show or create fears of unrealistic hazards. A media coverage of a study reported serious risks on certain medicines causing unnecessary fear amongst consumers as many of the facts they stated were proven exaggerated or false. The study was based in the US and it was on whether the use of medicines that have anticholinergic effects links to the increased risk of Alzheimer’s at the University of Washington and Group Health Research Institute was published in the peer-reviewed medical journal. The study had some shortcomings and was US based but the British media published the findings in the newspapers and particular newspapers exaggerated statistics, several printed the name of the wrong drug, wrong information given about the focus group and failed to make people aware that the instant stopping of these medications could have adverse effects. The drugs that the study focused on was antihistamines such as Benadryl but the U.K form of Benadryl does not contain diphenhydramine which has a anticholinergic effect and diphenh ydramine is not a chemical that is used in U.K in medicines as it is in the US so the risk of Benadryl in the U.K increasing the risk of Alzheimer’s would be risk assessed as very low as there is no hazard to cause the risk. The level of risk can be based on a person’s perception of the risk using their own knowledge of hazard gathered from word and mouth, personal dread of the hazard occurring and popular beliefs of the hazard and precautionary procedures are put in place using these values. In an elderly residential home there was a fear of Legionnaires’ disease but there was no evidence to support this fear as when tested there was no trace of legionella bacteria in the water system and the water system’s thermometer would ensure the water temperature stays at the levels where the Legionella bacteria is unable to spread and the caretaker checked the water system often ensuring it was up to health and safety standards but a senior member of staff believed that stagnant water was the cause of the spread Legionella bacteria and she thought the home did not use enough water daily to prevent this. An NHS article explains that the environment needed for Legionella bacteria is water temp erature of 20-45C (68-113F) and impurities in the water that the bacteria can use for food – such as rust, algae and lime scale, the world health organisation also has the same information on the spread of legionella bacteria also that if there is stagnant water to test the quality of the water after three days and there still may be no detection of legionella bacteria but these facts were not taken into account when the senior member of staff did her risk assessment and requested that the caretaker would run the taps and showers for a few hours daily to empty the water tanks but if there was a risk of legionnaires disease running water is a risk as it affects people by breathing it in the small droplets of water and the constant refilling of the water tank can dilute the disinfectant chemicals in the tank that protects the water against bacteria proving that a risk assessment that is based on a personal opinion can be inaccurate and would need further investigation into the facts. Epidemiology is the study of patterns of disease and mortality rates showing the diversities in areas, this helps target areas in the need of preventative healthcare and shows which areas or ages are more vulnerable to disease and what areas are people living the longest. The epidemiology study for Legionnaires disease shows that it ‘is rare in the UK. In 2013, 284 people were reported to have the infection in England and Wales. Of these cases, 88 people (31%) were exposed to the infection while travelling abroad – mainly to Mediterranean countries, but also tropical countries such as India. However, given the millions of trips made abroad each year, 88 cases is a very small number. Cases of Legionnaires disease arising in England and Wales usually peak between July and September. (NHS, 2015)’ In healthcare settings there are mandatory risk prevention measures in legislation on risk management and the health and safety of individuals and the environment that have been sanctioned by governing bodies and enforced by inspectors such as Care and Social Services Inspectorate Wales. The Health and Social Care (Safety and Quality) Act 2015 is a legislation that’s goal is to improve the safety and quality of those in care and explains what is expected of regulators of health and social care professions. Riddor or reporting of injuries, diseases and dangerous occurrences regulations 2013 is the regulation that explains to employers their duties on assessing risks and how to report incidents and these reports are important to assess the needed safety precautions to prevent incidents in the future. COSHH or Control of Substances Hazardous to Health is the law that enforces employers to ensure all hazardous substances are stored safely in appropriate storage rooms, necessary me asures to be taken and risk assessments are completed to prevent any incidents. The case study I am looking at is about Susan a 45 year old school teacher who three years ago lost her husband in a car accident when she had been driving and blames herself even though it was not her fault and since the accident she has turned to alcohol. Susan has been finding her job more stressful and is drinking more for as a coping mechanism but this had to stop as she arrived for work one day under the obvious influence of drink. She was sent home and warned if it happened again a formal disciplinary action would be taken. Her husband Rik was self-employed and had not made provision for a pension or insurance payment in the event of his death and Susan has not adapted her lifestyle following Rik’s death and she spends more than she earns. Her only income is her salary and child benefit; Susan did have some savings but these have now been spent. She has taken out a bank loan and has also just started taking out short term ‘pay day’ loans. The family live in their own home but it is subject to a mortgage. Susan is struggling to make payments and the last two have been paid late. Susan’s daughter Lydia aged 16 has just started her A levels and is at risk of being excluded for lack of effort. She has also started a relationship with Lee, aged 27, who is unemployed and has 2 children from separate previous relationships. Susan’s son Tom aged 14 has started to rebel against his mother. He defies her and stays out after dark and mixes with the ‘wrong people’. He was returned to the house recently by the police having been found drinking in the local park. Causes of Aggressive Behaviour: Anthropology Theories Causes of Aggressive Behaviour: Anthropology Theories In what sense are aggressive behaviors, i.e. conflict, competition, and dominance, universal characteristics of humans? What is the evidence that in some cultures aggressive behaviors are rarely observed and strongly sanctioned? How is such an outcome achieved? Humans are innately social animals, whose existence depends on a continued complex relationship with other human beings. Expressed aggression will inevitably lead to an individual or group as the dominator, and an individual or group as the dominated. Since human origin, individuals and groups have had continuous conflicts in search for the best economic resources, the most fertile land, and the most sustainable reproductive social group. For this reason, human history is full of aggressive conflicts and sanctioned aggressive behaviors. This essay is a brief composition summarizing the outcomes of aggressive human behaviors, specifically focusing on whether dominance, competition, conflict, and war are caused by nature, nurture, or both. This essay also presents case studies of rare amicable, nonviolent societies and their achievements of peace and human security. It is widely agreed among evolutionary anthropologists and sociobiologists that aggression is a biologically universal human characteristic (Dennen Falger 1990; Schmookler 1995; Wrangham Peterson 1996); however, many contemporary cultural anthropologists advocate that aggression is a cultural construct (Kropotkin 1914). Indeed, the historical debate between nature and nurture is vigorous, as the categories of human intrinsical, interactional, and environmental traits are blurred. Hobbes (ed. Tuck 1991) argued that war is a functional part of human nature that maintains a balance of power and solidarity. Rousseau (Jonathan 2005) defended the position that war is independent from human nature, and is therefore a dysfunctional social construct invented by states intended to protect societies. In contrast, Malthus (Pullen 1989) believed war to be a functional mechanism imparted by God to humans to reduce populations at necessary intervals through an innate expression of aggression and a need for in-group cohesion to maintain a sustainable equilibrium. The nature-nurture debate continues still, from early philosophers to contemporary scholars with no definitive answer. The debate however has recently grown more complex with a greater comprehension of biological predispositions that effect human behavior. The most compelling explanation is that many biological predispositions, like aggression and competition, can be distinguished from, but influenced by, the cultural environment (Renfrew 1997). Every living organism, Ridley (2003, p. 236) argues, is an instrument for ‘genes to grow, feed, thrive, replicate, and die, but most importantly its primary survival function is reproduction. Reproduction undoubtedly catalyzes a competitive force to create descendants. This essay reputes the position that biological factors influence the cultural, or as Ridley (2003) describes it ‘nature via nurture. More specifically, reproduction and aggression biologically entail phenotypic outcomes. All humans feel the need to eliminate competitors, or the offspring of competitors to protect reproductive capital such as territory and mates (Low 2000, p. 214). This can be achieved through aggressive non-violent dominance or aggressive violent conflicts. Anderson and Bushman (2002, p.28) defines human aggression as ‘any behavior directed toward another individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm. This, however, does not mean that the individual has carried out the harmful conduct. It can be inferred then, that aggression is a means to create an inverse relation to achieve a goal through someone without the use of harm or violence. The definition of violence, such as war, conflict, competition, and dominance is arbitrary. For example, violence in one culture can be very different to another culture, or even to individuals of the same culture. Anderson Bushman (2002, p.29) defines violence as ‘aggression that has extreme harm as its goal (e.g., death). When comparing the two definitions, it is clear that violence is aggressive expression but, conversely, aggression does not always lead to violence. These definitions lead to the conclusion that aggression is biological and universal among humans and furthermore, violence is nature via nurture. In fact, human expression of violence is minimal compared to aggression. Aggression can be observed in almost every human interaction in the form of non-violent dominance and competition for social capital (Dennen Falger 1990). Culture arbitrates in inverse relations with norms, mores, folkways, and taboos to prevent aggression turning into rampant violence. With the mediation of culture, aggression via violence serves multiple functions and dysfunctions within human societies (Dennen Falger 1990). Established in-out groups create and maintain group identity and boundary lines between societies. This stratification then creates reciprocal hostility between groups and creates the need for social institutions. These institutions often act as social filters preventing impulsive social conflict between in-out groups (Dennen Falger 1990). These filters also act as a mobilization mechanism, unifying the energies of group members, thus increasing group cohesion or reaffirming state sovereignty (Dennen Falger 1990). Without group unification, powerful charismatic people cannot rally a society toward a collective interest. Social order is achieved through rules and commands issued by these powerful people to maintain a normative system of society and influence the weaker people to represent their will (Dennen Falger 1990). The example of aggression (nature) via dominance (nurture) complies with the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle (Wrangham Peterson 1996; Kropotkin 1914 ). Through these two laws humans directly benefit from achieved power, status, and resources through competition; however, as a result, 60 percent of all human societies engage in warfare at least yearly (Low 2000, p. 223). War would be inevitable if the genetic basis alone dictated human action. The above arguments have uncovered that the universal character of human conflict, competition, and dominance is contingent on biological aggressive behaviors. Ethnographic records and historical accounts tell a clear story of hominid catalyzed aggression (Carmen 1997). From primate pack raiding, to Homo habilis tribal skirmishes, to Homo erectus group battles, to Neandertal societal armed conflicts, to Homo sapien civilization wars (Schmookler 1995 p. 74-87; Otterbein 2004), humans have perpetually constructed cultural systems to solve the recurrent problem of violent aggression via mutual aid and mutual struggle. Through history, humans have been actively altering their environments through problem solving to best suit intellectual development, which has caused an inevitable in-group/out-group competition (Schmookler 1995). The more humans mutually support each other, the more intellectual development occurs; conversely, the more human intellect increases, the larger civilizations become, and more blood is shed (Schmookler 1995). That is, greater levels of population pressure are associated with a greater likelihood of warfare. Furthermore, ‘warfare is more likely in advanced horticultural and agrarian societies than it is in hunting–and–gathering and simple horticultural societies, and that it is also more likely in hunting–and–gathering and agrarian societies that have above–average population densities (Nolan 2003). Thus, the denser human population becomes, the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle become more imposed. This is evidence that cultur e can intensify or suppress expressions of aggression. For the most part, however, culture has been unsuccessful at eliminating violence. Since mutual aid and mutual struggle has failed to resolve the problem of universal conflict, surely something must provide a solution. Kropotkin (1914, p. 74) argues that, ‘better conditions are created by the elimination of competition by means of mutual aid, thus establishing a cultural ecology of pacificism. This argument fails because, as presented above, innate aggression induces competition for optimal human survival. To completely eliminate competition, aggression must first be entirely suppressed. Complex human culture is unable to hinder aggression to the degree of elimination, but Kropotkin inadvertently made a good point. Once competition is reduced, social disparities and meritocracy will also decrease, thus preventing the less dominant group from obtaining the subordinate position (Schmookler 1995). The latter part of this essay will draw upon case studies to argue that competition reduction has been the primary objective for many tribal societies and welfare stat es. Kropotkin (1914) uses numerous examples to argue that societies with intra-group cohesion rarely encounter intra or inter-group conflict. Among them is a Papuan tribe located in Geelwink Bay, studied by G.L. Blink (1888). Kropotkin (1914, p. 94) interprets Blinks account as, ‘never having any quarrels worth speaking of and ‘never had he any conflict to complain of which is unsupported because Blink, in his field notes writes, ‘war prisoners are sometimes eaten. Kropotkin does not completely overlook this statement of warfare, but this case study fails to prove his point that inter-group peace is achievable. Kropotkin, therefore, makes a detrimental mistake in his argument for exemplifying paramount sociability and inter-tribal peace. It seems Kropotkin was attempting to persuade readers through an anarchist agenda by centering on the Papuan peaceful in-group relations and describing the Papuan tribe as having a primitive communist system (Kropotkin 1914, p. 93-95). By using examples of Inuit tribes, Kropotkin once again glorifies in-group mutual aid, but abandons emphasis on inter-group conflict. In summarizing Veniaminoff, Kropotkin (1914, p. 100) writes, ‘one murder only had been committed since the last century in a population of 60,000 people, irrespective of mass infanticide to maintain a sustainable population. In truth, Inuit tribes rely heavily on cooperation and reciprocity for intra-group survival; however, they are not exempt from inter-group hostility as Kropotkin omits (1914, p. 95-104; Gat 1999, p. 26). Anthropologist Reynolds (1985, p. 24) asserts that, ‘Eskimos had limited their aggressiveness in past fights with other Eskimos, but had been more brutal in fights with other North American Indian peoples. Although restrained and ritualized, Inuit did wage combat against each other and engaged in inter-ethnic conflict (Gat 1999, p. 26). Even Veniaminoff, whom Kropotkin (1914, p. 99) quotes, writes that for Aleoutes â₠¬Ëœit is considered shameful to†¦ask pardon from an enemy; to die without ever having killed an enemy. Once again, Kropotkin relates the primitive society with his anarchical communist agenda to prove in-group solidarity and peace is achievable, but avoids out-group enmity. Specifically, Kropotkin takes a Rousseauean social Darwinist stance on aggression and conflict by arguing that humans are innately peaceable and cooperative. Nevertheless, Kropotkin shares a commonality with Rousseau, Malthus, and Hobbes; each has constructed two functional and universal explanations for aggression and conflict (Dawson 1996, p. 7). Firstly, interspecific aggression occurs when one group attempts to exclude another group through competitiveness and dominance. This can be achieved with or without violence and is distinguished from predation, when an individual or group dominates the other for the economic gain of a food source. Secondly, group cohesion results in a synergistic in-group relationship, consequently producing an ethnocentric view of superiority toward other groups (Pope 2000, p. 161; Dawson 1996, p. 7). Although Kropotkin downplayed group ethnocentrism and rallying, he realized it is inevitable, as explained above. Indeed, the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle universally obligate humans. As explained above, innate competition and group solidarity has, throughout the history of man, led to conflicts. With the rise of large-scale societies, these conflicts evolved into primitive warfare. During the early Paleolithic, H. s. sapiens began to spread rapidly across the earths surface (Dawson 1996, p. 26). Fissionings and fusions occurred often, and competition intensified because of seasonal scarce resources. According to Dawson (1996, p. 26) ‘all theories of primitive warfare have recognized that whether or not it [war] is innate it has to be triggered by competition. Warfare is certainly not innate, but it may account for the wide dispersal of early Paleolithic humanity. Conversely, it would have limited the possibilities for offensive/defensive competition because early humans most likely fought for land and resources and the winner would assume ‘ownership, while the other group found new economic capital (Dawson 1996, p. 26). This method would prove effecti ve until groups could no longer diffuse due to a limit of land and resources. At the beginning of the Neolithic culture, large groups could no longer easily avoid neighboring groups by seeking new land, therefore resource limitations compelled people to live in larger, more cohesive societies (Dawson 1996, p. 26-27). Dense populations compelled groups to become territorial, with semi-permanent settlements. Human societies, consequently, were forced to create caches of food to survive. In order to protect these caches, defensible resources became a defensive strategy against raiding groups, especially for agricultural societies (Dawson 1996, p. 26-27). Defensive logistics were designed to deter war but, according to the archeological evidence, war was more often and more brutal (Dawson 1996, p. 26-27). As a result of militarism, the individual became an expendable resource for the good of the group. The democratization of warfare among states is the current solution to the consistent and universal competitive strive for dominance. The democratic model originated during the French Revolution, when states were not yet nation-states and nationalism had not yet developed as a significant political force (Baylis, Smith, Owens 2008, p. 546). For the first time, humanity mustered an enormous and unprecedented amount of human energy into one single national service and mutual protection (Schmookler 1995, p. 99-100, 287-288; Baylis et al. 2008, p. 546). When France democratically handed over this vast army to Napoleon, neighboring nations were compelled to enhance and enlarge their military to deter domination. However, Napoleon was able to dominate Europe because of the newly devised national political system, enabling him to conjure unequalled armies (Schmookler 1995, p. 99-100, 287-288; Baylis, et al. 2008, p. 546). Once again, the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle intertwine. In conclusion, Hobbes, Malthus, Rousseau, and Kropotkin all had a static view of competition. Competition inevitably leads to war and peace. The laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle are innate, universal, and are not mutually exclusive. They secure orderliness and allow humans to act freely to preserve their genes, however, the knowledge and values shared by a society influence and, to some degree, determine the thoughts and actions of an individual to behave synergistically and symbiotically (Schmookler 1995, p. 13). Through time, humanity has used solidarity, anarchy, fissioning, defense, militarism, social institutions, and democracy to sanction or repel conflict and violence with no prevail. In each case study presented, intra-group solidarity brought on inter-group competition and conversely, inter-group conflict caused intra-group solidarity. Because humans are social creatures and are dependent on each other for culture, conflicts are inevitable. The laws of mutual struggle and mutual aid operate within the law of natural selection – gene survival of the fittest individual or group. In/out groups will always be present; however, conflict and war are not innately biological. They are an outward expression of acculturation. That is, human biological aggression is stimulated by cultural norms, mores, folkways, and taboos. A groups cultural sanctions determine the social consequence for overt aggression. Bibliography Baylis, J., Smith S., Owens P., The globalization of world politics: An introduction to international relations, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, London. 546 Baron, RA Richardson, DR 1994, Human aggression, 2nd ed., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 1-38. Blink, G.L. 1888, Bulletin de la societe d anthropologie, vol.11, p. 386, cited in Kropotkin, Petr 1914, Mutual aid: A factor of evolution, Porter Sargent Publishers Inc, Boston. p. 93. Carmen, John 1997, Material harm: Archaeological studies of war and violence, Cruithne Press, UK. Coy, Patrick Woehrle, Lynne 2000, Social conflicts and collective identities, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Inc., Maryland. Dawson, Doyne 1996, The origins of war: Biological and anthropological theories, History and Theory, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 1-28, viewed 25 Aug 2009, . Dennen, J. Falger V. (ed) 1990, Sociobiology and conflict: Evolutionary perspectives on competition, cooperation, violence and warfare, Chapman and Hall, London. Gat, A 1999, Social organization, group conflict and the demise of the Neanderthals, The Mankind Quarterly, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 437-454. Kropotkin, Petr 1914, Mutual aid: A factor of evolution, Porter Sargent Publishers Inc, Boston. Low, Bobbi 2000, Why sex matters: A Darwinian look at human behavior, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Marks, Jonathan 2005, Perfection and disharmony in the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain. Nolan, Patrick 2003, ‘Toward an Ecological–Evolutionary Theory of the Incidence of Warfare in Preindustrial Societies, Sociological Theory, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 18 – 30. Otterbein, Keith 2004, How war began, Texas AM University Press, U.S.A. Pope, Geoffrey 2000, The biological bases of human behavior, Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Pullen, John (ed.) 1989, T.R. Malthus: Principles of political economy, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain. Renfrew, John 1997, Aggression and its causes: A biopsychosocial approach, Oxford University Press, New York. Reynolds, Vernon 1985, ‘Sociobiology meeting, Anthropology Today, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 24-25, viewed on 01 September 2009, . Ridley, Matt 2003, Nature via nurture, Fourth Estate, London. Schmookler, Andrew B. 1995, The parable of the tribes: The problem of power in social evolution, second edition, State University of New York, New York. Tuck, Richard (ed.) 1991, Hobbes: Leviathan, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain. Wrangham, R Peterson, D 1996, Demonic males: apes and the origins of human violence, Bloomsbury, London.

An Analysis of Ode to the West Wind Essay -- Ode to the West Wind Essa

An Analysis of Ode to the West Wind Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" appears more complex at first than it really is because the poem is structured much like a long, complex sentence in which the main clause does not appear until the last of five fourteen line sections. The poem's main idea is held in suspension for 56 lines before the reader sees exactly what Shelley is saying to the west wind, and why he's saying it. In the first four sections Shelley addresses the west wind in three different ways, each one evoking the wind's power and beauty. And each section ends with Shelley asking the West Wind to "hear, oh hear!" The reader's curiosity is therefore both aroused and suspended, because we know the west wind is supposed to "hear" something, but we aren't told what the wind is suposed to hear or is supposed to do. The first stanza develops the idea of the west wind's effect on the autumn leaves. The associations we automatically make with autumn&emdash;the end of the year, the death of the year's life, the onset of winter&emdash;are important, but just as important are other life-giving aspects of the wind's power. Shelley tells us that the wind not only blows the "Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,/ Pestilence-stricken multitudes" (4, 5) of autumn leaves, but also "Chariotest to their dark and wintry bed/ The wingà ¨d seeds" (6, 7) which will lie dormant throughout the winter until the spring breezes&emdash; "Thine azure sister of the spring" (9)&emdash;blow over the landscape to awaken the life in them. The west wind drives dead leaves, but also scatters the seeds that will later give the world new life. This life-giving aspect of the west wind seems significant, but the reader cannot quite see yet why Shel... ...he minds of his readers. But the readers are hard to reach, unresponsive. It can seem to a poet struggling for an audience, as Shelley did, that winter was coming. It took a lot of faith to believe that spring would follow. The west wind is a revivifying force, something that can (metaphorically if not literally) drive his poetry forward to a new birth in whatever spring lies ahead: "If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" (70) It is the poet's plea for a rebirth of energy. We don't know for certain that the poet's energy has been sapped by the struggle to make his voice heard, but we know for much of Shelley's career he did struggle with the depressing feeling that no one was reading him. In any event, this powerful natural force becomes for Shelley a symbol of a power that can drive out the year's death, his deep depression, and plant the seeds for a rebirth.